PAGE 10
HIV NUTRITION UPDATE
VOLUME 7, ISSUE 6
Omega-3 Fatty Acids And The Metabolic Complications Associated With HIV Lipodystrophy

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15. Institute of Medicine (IOM). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrates, Fiber, Fat, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients) Washington DC: National Academy Press; 2002.
16. Mori TA, Watts GF, Burke V, Hilme E, et al. Differential effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on vascular reactivity of the forearm microcirculation in hyperlipidemic, overweight men. Circulation 2000; 102: 1264-9. 
17. Mate J, Castanos R, Garcia-Samaniego J, Pajares JM. Does dietary fish oil maintain the remission of Crohn’s disease: a case control study. Gastroenterology 1991; 100: A228 (Abstract).
18. Kremer JM, Lawrence DA, Petrillo GF, Litts LL, et al. Effects of high-dose fish oil on rheumatoid arthritis after stopping nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Arthritis Rheum 1995; 38: 1107-14.
19. Stoll AL. The Omega-3 Connection. NY, NY: Simon and Schuster; 2001.
20. Carr A, Samaras K, Burton S, Law M, et al. A syndrome of peripheral lipodystrophy, hyperlipidaemia, and insulin resistance in patients receiving HIV protease inhibitors. AIDS 1998; 12: F51-8.
21. Hadigan C, Miller K, Corcoran C, Anderson E, et al. Fasting hyperinsulinemia and changes in regional body composition in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84: 1932-7.
22. Kotler D, Rosenbaum K, Wang J, Pierson RN. Studies of body composition and fat distribution in HIV-infected and control subjects. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1999; 20: 228-37.
23. Wanke C. Epidemiological and clinical aspects of the metabolic complications of HIV infection, the fat redistribution syndrome. AIDS 1999; 13 (11): 1287-93.
24. Batterham M, Garsia R, Greenip P. Dietary intake, serum lipids, insulin resistance and body composition in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy ‘Diet FRS Study’. AIDS 2000; 14: 1839-43.
25. Grunfeld C. Hyperlipidemia and insulin resistance due to HIV infection and its therapies. Medscape HIV/AIDS: Annual Update 2000. 
26. Kosmiski L, Kuritzkes DR, Lichtenstein KA, Glueck DH, et al. Fat distribution and metabolic changes are strongly correlated and energy expenditure is increased in the HIV lipodystrophy syndrome. AIDS 2001; 15: 1993-2000.
27. Moyle G, Baldwin C, Phillpot M. Managing metabolic disturbances and lipodystrophy: Diet, exercise, and smoking advice. AIDS Reader 2001; 11 (12): 589-92.
28. Wanke C, Falutz JM, Shevitz A, Phair JP, Kotler DP. Clinical evaluation and management of metabolic and morphologic abnormalities associated with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34: 248-59.
29. Emken EA, Adlof RO, Gulley RM. Dietary linoleic acid influences desaturation and acylation of deuterium-labeled linoleic and linolenic acids in young adult males. Biochem Biophys Acta 1994; 1213: 277-88.
30. Pawlosky RJ, Hibbeln JR, Novotny JA, Salem N Jr, et al. Physiological compartmental analysis of alpha-linolenic acid metabolism in adult humans. J Lipid Res 2001; 42: 1257-65.
31. Singh RB, Niaz MA, Sharma JP, Kumar R, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of fish oil and mustard oil in patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction: the Indian experiment of infarct survivor-4. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 1997; 11: 485-91.
32. Mori TA, Bao DQ, Burke V, Puddey IB, Beilin LJ. Docosahexaenoic acid but not eicosapentaenoic acid lowers ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate in humans. Hypertension 1999; 34: 253-60.
33. Mori TA, Burke V, Puddey IB, Watts GF, et al. Purified eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids have differential effects on serum lipids and lipoproteins, LDL particle size, glucose, and insulin in mildly hyperlipidemic men. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 71: 1084-94.
34. Berry LM. Dietary fatty acids in the management of diabetic mellitus. Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 66 (suppl): 991S-7S.
35. Dolecek TA. Epidemiological evidence of relationships between dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and mortality in the multiple risk factor intervention trial. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1992; 200(2): 177-82.
36. Burr ML, Fehily AM, Gilbert JF, Rogers S, et al. Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial infarction: diet and reinfarction trial (DART). Lancet 1989; 2: 757-61.
37. Kromhout D, Bloemberg BP, Feskens EJ, Hertog MG, et al. Alcohol, fish, fibre and antioxidant vitamins intake do not explain population differences in coronary heart disease mortality. Int J Epidemiol 1996; 25: 753-9.
38. Storlien LH, Jenkins AB, Chisholm DJ, Posiveck WS, et al. Influence of dietary fat composition on development of insulin resistance in rats. Relationship to muscle triglyceride and omega-3 fatty acids in muscle phospholipid. Diabetes 1991; 40: 280-9.
39. Salmeron J, Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, et al. Dietary fat intake and risk of type II diabetes in women. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 73: 1019-26.
40. Woodman RJ, Mori TA, Burke V, Puddey IB, et al. Effects of purified eicosapentaenoic and docohexaenoic acids on glycemic control, blood pressure, and serum lipids in type 2 diabetic patients with treated hypertension. Am J Clin Nutr 2002; 76: 1007-15.
41. Stacpoole PW, Alig A, Kilgore LL, Ayala CM, et al. Lipodystrophic diabetes mellitus. Investigations of lipoprotein metabolism and the effects of omega-3 fatty acid administration in two patients. Metabolism 1988; 37 (10): 944-51.
42. Raheja BS, Sodikat SM, Phatsk RB, Rav MB. Significance of the N-6/N-3 ratio for insulin action in diabetes. Am NY Acad Sci 1993; 683: 258-71.
43. Bell SJ, Chavali S, Bistrian BR, Connolly CA, et al. Dietary fish oil and cytokine and eicosanoid production during human immunodeficiency virus infection. JPEN 1996; 20 (1): 43-9.
44. Pichard C, Sudre P, Karsegard V, Yerly S, et al. A randomized double-blind controlled study of 6 months of oral nutritional supplementation with arginine and W-3 fatty acids in HIV-infected patients. AIDS 1998; 12: 53-63.
45. Department of Health and Human Services, US Food and Drug Administration. Substances affirmed as generally recognized as safe: menhaden oil.  Federal Register June 5, 1997;62(108):30751-7.
46. Kris-Etherton PM, Taylor DS, Yu-Poth S, Huth P, et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in the United States. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 71 (1 Suppl): 179S-88S.
“The oils with the highest amount of omega-3 in their natural state are: e.g., flax oil, walnut oil,  canola oil, wheat germ oil, and soybean oil.” Know Your Fats by Mary G. Enig, Bethesda Press; 2000”

47. Shils ME, Olson JA, Shike M, Ross AC. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. Ninth Edition, Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999:1867.
48. Yoshizawa K, Rimm EB, Morris JS, Spate VL, et al. Mercury and the risk of coronary heart disease in men. N Engl J Med 2002; 347 (22): 1755-60.
49. Guallar E, Sanz-Gallardo I, van’t Veer P, Bode P, et al. Mercury, fish oils, and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2002; 347 (22): 1747-54.
50. US Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Seafood. Mercury levels in seafood species. May 2001. Accessed 24 March 2003.

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5/29/2003